Exclamations

These express the extent to which speakers are impressed or aroused by something. The are often short sentences or even one word. Although, they can take the form of major sentences too. 

Their first element begins with what or how, and is followed by a subject and verb, in that order. For example:

What an awful night that was!

What a masterpiece you've made!

How swell she is!

They can offer appear in a reduced form.

What an awful night!

What a masterpiece!

How swell!

Both sets of examples are said to have an exclamative structure. 

It's rare to find an exclamative with the subject and verb inverted, but they do exist. For example:

How often have I cursed that terrible day!

Clause Elements

All clauses are made up of elements. 

There are five types of clause element:

This sentence has all five - John / has called / me / a fool / twice 

Subject 

This usually identifies the theme or topic of the clause. (John)

Verb 

This has a wide range of meanings, such as actions, sensations, or states of being. (has called).

Object  

Who or what is directly affected by the action. (me)  

Complement  

These add information to another clause element. (a fool) - Which adds to the meaning of (me)

Adverbial 

These usually add information to a situation, such as the time or frequency of an action. (twice)


In 90% of clauses containing a subject, verb, and object, the subject precedes the verb, and the verb precedes the object.

A clause element doesn't mean it is only one word. Here are some examples:

I / planted / a flower - Subject / Verb / Object.
All the kids / have eaten / chocolate - Subject / Verb / Object.

When to Use a Dash

A dash is a mark of separation. It is stronger than a comma, less formal than a colon, and more relaxed than a parenthesis. 

When he looked at the drink-that was bubbling and churning-he wondered if he should drink it at all.

The parrot made a noise-a wheezing, choking, exasperated cough. 

The bald spot that caught the sun, the hunch in his shoulders, the limp in his walk-all the signs of old age catching up with him. 

Only use a dash when a more common mark of punctuation seems inadequate. 

Using Colons

A colon should be used after an independent clause to introduce a list of particulars, an appositive, an amplification, or an illustrative quotation. 

A colon tells the reader that what follows is closely related to the preceding clause. It has more effect than the comma, less power to separate than the semicolon, and it is more formal than the dash. For example:

A keen footballer requires three props: boots, a ball, and his favourite team's shirt. 

If the second independent clause interprets or amplifies the first, then a colon should be used to join them.  

A colon can be used to introduce a quotation that supports or contributes to the preceding clause. For example:

When I dwell on the past, it helps me to think of Oasis singing: "Don't look back in anger."

A colon can also be used to:

1) Follow the salutation of a formal letter. Dear Mr. Robertson:

2) To separate the hours and minutes in time. 11:22

3) To separate the title of a work from the subtitle. Super Noodles: A guide to terrible meals.

4) To separate a bible chapter from the verse. Genesis 10:14

The Use of Semicolons

A semicolon should be used when writing two independent clauses as one sentence. For example:

Stephen King's books are horrific; they are so well written. 

It is nearly half past five; we cannot reach town before dark.

These sentences can also be written as two separate sentences:

Stephen King's books are horrific. They are so well written.

It is nearly half past five. We cannot reach town before dark. 

If a conjunction is inserted, then the proper mark is a comma:

Stephen King's books are horrific, for they are so well written. 

It is nearly half past five, and we cannot reach town before dark.