5 Things to Know About Irregular Verbs

1) There are less that 300 irregular verbs.

2) Most irregular verbs change the vowel of the base to make their past or -ed participle forms. This is called vowel gradation. For example:

meet-met / take-took / speak-spoken

3) The -ed ending is never used in a regular way with an irregular verb. It is often not used at all - won, met, cut, sat - An important pattern with some verbs is the use of a variant form, in which the 'd' sound of the ending changes to a 't'. For example:

burned - burnt / spilled - spilt / kneeled - knelt.

4) Burned is more common in American English than British English. The 'd' and 't' forms do not convey the same thing. The 'd' form emphasises the duration of an action - it burned for weeks. Whereas the 't' form would be more appropriately used when saying - ow, that burnt me.

5) There are seven classes of irregular verb:

a) There are about 20 verbs whose only irregular feature is the ending used for both past and -ed participle forms: have - had / send - sent / burn - burnt - burned.

b) There are about 10 verbs whose past tense is regular, but their -ed participle has an -n ending and a variant form in -ed: mow - mown - mowed / swell - swollen - swelled.

c) There are about 40 verbs that have the same ending for both the past and -ed participle forms, but they are irregular because the vowel of the base form changes: keep - kept / sleep - slept / teach - taught / sell - sold.

d) There are about 75 verbs that have an -n ending for the -ed participle form and an irregular past form. The vowel of the base also changes: blow - blew - blown / take - took - taken / see - saw - seen / undo - undid - undone.

e) There are about 40 verbs that have the same form throughout: cut / let / shut / broadcast / outbid.

f) There are about 70 verbs that have no ending for both past tense and the -ed participle. The vowel used in the base changes: spin - spun / mislead - misled / sit - sat / stand - stood.

g) There are about 25 verbs that have no ending, the past and -ed participle forms are different, and the vowels change with each form: swim - swam - swum / begin - began - begun / go - went - gone.

3 Things to Know About Verb Phrase Structure

1) The verb element in a sentence comprises of one or more words that make up the verb phrase. For example:

I SAW a cat. 

I HAVEN'T SEEN anything. 

DID I SEE that? 

I SHOULDN'T HAVE BEEN SEEING her.

2) The verb phrase consists of at least one main verb and can have up to four auxiliary verbs. For example:

a) kiss.

b) is kissing.

c) has been kissing.

d) must have been kissing.

e) must have been being kissed. (This is rare).

3) Three types of verb can occur with the verb phrase.

a) Full - Or lexical - These have a clearly statable meaning and act as main verbs:

run, jump, go, look, want, think, find.

b) Modal auxiliary - These express a range of judgments about the events and can only be used as auxiliary verbs:

will, shall, may, might, can, could.

c) Primary - These can be either main or auxiliary verbs and there are three of them - BE, HAVE, DO. For example:

Main use: 

They ARE happy. 

She HAS a dog. 

They DO sums.

Auxiliary use:

They ARE going.

She HAS seen it.

DO they go?

There are certain other verbs that do not fall clearly into these types. 

3 Things to Know About the Adverbial Element in a Clause

1) An adverb usually adds information about the situation, such as the time of an action or its frequency. 

2) The adverbial is different from other elements in several respects.

a) There can be several instances in one clause. For example:

I arrived via plane / on Wednesday / in the sun / wearing flip flops / eating chips / .....

b) Adverbials are most common at the end of a clause, but they can be used is several possible positions. For example:

(Twice) he (twice) asked me (twice).

c) Adverbials express a wide range of meanings, such as manner, space, and time. For example:

Fred remained quietly / at the library / all day.

                       (manner) (space)          (time)

d) Adverbials perform several roles in a clause.

i) Adding information - He ran quickly.

ii) Linking clauses together - The plane was full, however, I found a seat.

iii) Some comment about what is being expressed - Frankly, I think you look ridiculous. 

e) When adverbials relate specifically to the meaning of the verb, they are said to MODIFY the verb. 

3) Several things can be adverbs.

a) Adverb phrases - They ran quickly. 

b) Prepositional phrases - We cartwheeled through the garden.  

c) Nouns and noun phrases - That boy rang my bell today.

d) Some subordinate clauses - The women screamed when they saw the monster.

8 Things to Know About the Complement Element in a Clause

1) It expresses meaning which adds to that of another clause element. 

2) It adds to either the subject (subject complement) or the object (object complement).

3) The subject complement usually follows the subject and verb in a clause. The verb is usually a form of be (is, was, etc.) It could be other verbs. As long as it can link the complement meaning with the subject meaning. These are called copular, or linking verbs. For example:

She is a housewife. 

 (S) (V)   (C)

The dog became agitated.

   (S)        (V)         (C)

The painting looks marvellous.

    (S)               (V)     (C)

4) Here is a list of some copular verbs with complements:

appear (sad)

feel (happy)

grow (weary)

remain (still)

seem (agitated)

turn (hot)

5) An object complement usually follows the direct object and its meaning relates to it. For example:

They voted him leader.

He made me happy.

6) All of these can be complements: 

Noun phrases, including single nouns:

John is a chef.          They became movie stars. 

Adjective phrases, including single adjectives:

Joyce is very sad.        The pie is ready.

Pronouns:

This is her.       Where's that?       That's who?

Some subordinate clauses:

That's what I replied. 

7) When the complement is a noun phrase, it has the same number as its corresponding element. For example:

The child is a monster.

The children are monsters.

8) It's the same with the object complement:

I find your child a monster.

I find your children monsters.

The Object Element of a Clause

The object element usually follows the subject and verb in a clause. There are two types of object:

Direct Object

This is usually a person or thing directly affected by the action expressed in the verb:

The fat woman ate a cake. 

       (S)             (V)  (O)d 

I saw Jane.

(S) (V) (O)d

Indirect Object

The indirect object usually refers to an animate being that is the recipient of the action. There is usually a direct object in these clauses also. The indirect object usually comes before the direct object. 

She gave the cat some water. 

(S)    (V)    (O)i        (O)d

I told her my plans.

(S)(V)(O)i   (O)d

What can be an Object?

Noun phrases, including single nouns:

I saw John. We've found a new car.

Pronouns:

John saw me. Now hear this. He did what?

Some subordinate clauses:

John said I'd been foolish.

The Subject Element of a Clause

In statements, the subject element usually appears before the verb:

Snow fell hard.

And after the first verb in questions:

Is she really going to wear that?

In third person present tense, the subject controls whether the verb is singular or plural:

He sees you.       They see you. 

The subject also controls how certain objects and complements are formed:

I slapped myself. He slapped himself. They slapped themselves. 

Amy's my friend. Amy and Holly are my friends. 

What Can be a Subject?

Noun phrases, including single nouns:

James ran fast. The bus was on time. Steak, ale, and cake are available. 

Pronouns:

I like pumas. That interests me. Who owns this?

Some subordinate clauses:

What she did was out of order. Where you live doesn't count. 

When you string a list of nouns together, they form one subject in the clause, rather than separating them out. For example:

Amy, Alina, and John were laughing. 

            (S)                     (V)      (C)

This isn't S + S + S + V + C, but rather S + V + C

Echo Utterances

An echo utterance is a sentence that is used only in dialogue and confirms what a speaker has just said. 

All kinds of sentences can be echoed:

Statements

1) Will didn't like the meal.

2) He didn't what?

Questions

1) Did you just save my life?

2) Did I just save your wife?

Directives

1) Walk over there.

2) Over there?

Exclamations

1) What a beautiful dog!

2) What a beautiful dog, indeed! 

Exclamations

These express the extent to which speakers are impressed or aroused by something. The are often short sentences or even one word. Although, they can take the form of major sentences too. 

Their first element begins with what or how, and is followed by a subject and verb, in that order. For example:

What an awful night that was!

What a masterpiece you've made!

How swell she is!

They can offer appear in a reduced form.

What an awful night!

What a masterpiece!

How swell!

Both sets of examples are said to have an exclamative structure. 

It's rare to find an exclamative with the subject and verb inverted, but they do exist. For example:

How often have I cursed that terrible day!

Directives

Directives are sentences which instruct someone to do something. To call them commands is misleading, because commands are one type of directive. 

Here are some examples:

Commanding - Sit down now!

Inviting - Have a drink with me tonight. 

Warning - Mind where you tread.

Pleading - Help me.

Advising - Take the medicine.

Requesting - Open the door, please.

Expressing good wishes - Have a nice day.

In all of these cases, the verb is in it's basic form, with no endings, and there is usually no subject element present. Sentences structured in this way are called imperatives. It is typical for a directive sentence to have an imperative structure. 

Some directives do not use the basic pattern. 

They allow a subject with strong stress - You be quiet! Nobody move! Everyone go!

They begin with let followed by a subject - Let me see. Let us pray. Let's go.

They begin with do or don't - Do come in. Don't laugh. Do not answer. 

The Seven Basic Clause Types

Most sentences can be analysed into one of only seven basic clause types

Key - S: Subject, V: Verb, O: Object, C: Complement, A: Adverbial.

1) S + V - Jason sneezed.

2) S + V + O - Jason kicked a ball.

3) S + V + C - Jason is ready.

4) S + V + A - Jason walks to Manchester.

5) S + V + O + O - Jason took money from me.

6) S + V + O + C - Jason got a shoe wet.

7) S + V + O + A - Jason put his shoe in a box.

Sometimes the clause elements are used in a different sequence. This especially happens with questions, but can also happen with statements. 

Jonah Hex / his name / is! - C + S + V

The adverbial is different to the other elements as it can be used often in a clause. For example:

Jake / leaned / on the stick / again / happily - S + V + A + A + A

Clause Elements

All clauses are made up of elements. 

There are five types of clause element:

This sentence has all five - John / has called / me / a fool / twice 

Subject 

This usually identifies the theme or topic of the clause. (John)

Verb 

This has a wide range of meanings, such as actions, sensations, or states of being. (has called).

Object  

Who or what is directly affected by the action. (me)  

Complement  

These add information to another clause element. (a fool) - Which adds to the meaning of (me)

Adverbial 

These usually add information to a situation, such as the time or frequency of an action. (twice)


In 90% of clauses containing a subject, verb, and object, the subject precedes the verb, and the verb precedes the object.

A clause element doesn't mean it is only one word. Here are some examples:

I / planted / a flower - Subject / Verb / Object.
All the kids / have eaten / chocolate - Subject / Verb / Object.

Defining a Sentence

Defining a sentence can be a hard thing to do.

Sometimes people say it is 'A complete expression of a single thought', but this can be too vague.

There are sentences that express a single thought but are not complete:

- Nice one, Fred! 

- Horrible Night! 

- Taxi! 

Some sentences are complete and express more than one thought:

- Because it's Sunday, James wants to walk in the park, play on the swings, eat ice cream, and fish in the river.

The formal approach to english grammar looks at the way sentences are constructed - The pattern of the words they contain.

Three things apply to any English sentence:

- It is constructed according to a system of rules known by all the adult mother-tongue speakers of the language. A sentence formed in this way is said to be grammatical. 

- It can stand on its own without feeling incomplete.

- It is the largest construction to which the rules of grammar apply.   

Using Colons

A colon should be used after an independent clause to introduce a list of particulars, an appositive, an amplification, or an illustrative quotation. 

A colon tells the reader that what follows is closely related to the preceding clause. It has more effect than the comma, less power to separate than the semicolon, and it is more formal than the dash. For example:

A keen footballer requires three props: boots, a ball, and his favourite team's shirt. 

If the second independent clause interprets or amplifies the first, then a colon should be used to join them.  

A colon can be used to introduce a quotation that supports or contributes to the preceding clause. For example:

When I dwell on the past, it helps me to think of Oasis singing: "Don't look back in anger."

A colon can also be used to:

1) Follow the salutation of a formal letter. Dear Mr. Robertson:

2) To separate the hours and minutes in time. 11:22

3) To separate the title of a work from the subtitle. Super Noodles: A guide to terrible meals.

4) To separate a bible chapter from the verse. Genesis 10:14

Do Not Break Sentences in Two

Try to avoid inserting a period where a comma is needed. For example:

I met him on the train six months ago. Coming from Manchester to London. 

She was an great speaker. A woman who had hunted with Lions and lived with Chimpanzees. 

In both of these examples, the period should be replaced with a comma. 

Sometimes, if dramatic effect is needed, inserting a period can work. For example:

He stood in the darkness screaming her name. No reply.

This needs to be executed well, otherwise it comes across as an error. The place for broken sentences is generally in dialogue, when a character seems to speak in a particularly clipped way.